Micropollutants in Water Recycling: A Case Study of N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) Exposure from Water versus Food
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Date
2010Author
Schäfer, Andrea
Mitch, William
Walewijk, Sophie
Munoz, Albert
Teuten, Emma
Reinhard, Martin
Metadata
Abstract
One of the most concerning xenobiotics currently under discussion by regulators and
treatment experts is N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). NDMA is a carcinogen known to
induce cancer in a variety of animals, causing DNA damage at low doses. Human
exposure occurs through cigarettes, food, personal care products and drinking water, in
addition to endogenous formation in the stomach.
The daily tolerable limit for intake has been identified to be 4.0 - 9.3 ng/kg.day (Fitzgerald
and Robinson 2007). Water at the WHO proposed guideline value of 100 ng/L would
contribute about 2.9 ng/kg.day of this intake, while intake from food varies from 5.7 – 44.2
ng/kg.day. Smoking and workplace are additional exposure routes. This outlines that the
exposure is often higher than tolerable limits. In the food and drinks industry this has in
recent decades resulted in improved manufacturing processes.
Awareness of NDMA in drinking water is a relatively recent issue. NDMA stems from
precursors in raw water and can be generated during treatment. Generally removal of
precursors is more achievable than the removal of NDMA itself. For example, the potent
NDMA precursor dimethylamine is rapidly removed in biological pre-treatment, while many
other precursor amines are more persistent. These precursor amines include some ion
exchange resins and coagulants, used in water treatment processes, which have been
shown to generate NDMA during chlorination. Ozonation has also been shown to produce
NDMA in treatment. UV oxidation is the preferred method for removal of NDMA in water
treatment, although reverse osmosis membranes are possible alternatives if effective
retention can be achieved.