Towards a pneumatology of in-betweenness: the experiences of 1.5 generation migrant Zomi women in Europe in conversation with Asian American perspectives

Abstract

This thesis critically examines Asian American theologies of identity and in-betweenness through the lens of 1.5 generation migrant Zomi women in Europe. The Zomi are a predominantly Christian ethnic minority from Chin State, north-west Myanmar. Decades of ethno-religious persecution, marginalisation, and socio-economic deprivation have led many Zomi to migrate in search of better lives abroad. The term ‘1.5 generation’ refers to immigrants who were born in one country but moved to a different country at a formative age, resulting in a dual affinity that engenders a profound sense of in-betweenness that can be simultaneously destabilising as well as generative.

This thesis brings the Zomi women’s reflections and lived experiences of migration to Europe into dialogue with Asian American theology, which is the most prolific and sustained body of work exploring Asian identity and belonging in migrant and diasporic contexts. However, there are significant incongruities between the two contexts which stymie the relevance of Asian American theology beyond the borders of the United States and underscore the need for a theology of in-betweenness that can better address the situation of Asian migrant women elsewhere. This thesis attempts to construct a theology of in-betweenness for and from migrant Zomi women using their own reflections on their lives and pneumatological resources. It suggests that the Zomi women’s in-betweenness can offer fresh insight into the workings of the Holy Spirit in the context of migration, diaspora, and marginality, which can ultimately contribute to the broader development of an Asian diasporic theology.

This project is best understood as a work of lived theology, written from the perspective of the author, herself a 1.5 generation Zomi woman. It draws upon semi-structured interviews conducted with six 1.5 generation Zomi women residing in Britain, Norway, and Sweden, complemented by additional conversations with first-generation Zomi migrants, fieldwork observations from Chin State, and the author’s personal reflections. The interweaving of these theological sources reflects the inherently personal nature of the topic at hand.

The structure of the thesis is as follows. Chapters One and Two introduce the overall project, the Zomi people, and the Zomi diasporas in Britain, Norway, and Sweden. Emphasis is placed on the intertwined nature of Zomi identity and Christianity, as well as the pioneering status of these Zomi European communities. Chapters Three and Four present the findings from interviews with 1.5 generation Zomi women. It is argued that they experience cultural and generational in-betweenness, to which they respond with ‘acts of curation’ and ‘acts of mediation’ respectively. Chapter Five assesses the specific incongruencies between the Asian American context and that of the Zomi women. It argues that the cultural and generational in-betweenness of the Zomi women, together with their pioneering status, must form the foundation of a Zomi women’s theology of in-betweenness. Pneumatology is proposed as thev best framework for such a theology. Chapter Six constructs a Zomi women’s theology of in-betweenness drawn directly from the Zomi women’s experiences. Treating their experiences as a theological loci, traditional conceptions of the Holy Spirit’s creative powers, intercessory and reconciliatory roles, and relationship to the believer are re-evaluated, expanded, or nuanced in light of their lived experiences. The pneumatologies of the 1.5 generation Zomi women invite reconsideration of overlooked aspects of the Holy Spirit – particularly in relation to migration and diasporic life. Chapter Seven offers a conclusion and summarises the broader contributions of this research.

Through its centring of women’s voices; its focus on a marginalised minority; and its pneumatological approach, this thesis challenges and contributes to the fields of Asian diasporic theology, theologies of migration, and World Christianity.