Male homosexuality in Ming dynasty China

Abstract

This thesis examines the phenomenon of male homosexuality in the context of heteronormativity and patriarchy in the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty China. It investigates three representative practices of male homosexuality: the qixiongdi marriage, the rusheng’s homoeroticism, and the menzi and xiaochang as male sex workers for men. The interaction between male homosexuality and the social context is measured through a three-stage model—trouble, tolerance, and reconstruction—inspired by Western gender theories.

This thesis argues that the above phenomena of male homosexuality in the Wanli period dynamically interacted with the heteronormativity and patriarchy of the time. Through both the institutionalisation of emerging knowledge and norms and individual acts that cause performative subversion, all three cases effectively troubled the dominant social structures related to gender and sexuality. Simultaneously, however, each also exhibited varying degrees of compromise with—and integration into—the disciplinary norms imposed by the dominant social order. The case of qixiongdi as a regional practice of male homosexual marriage was featured by recognition from local communities and acquiescence from the official government, which implied the social tolerance of this practice. However, the practice of qixiongdi adopted the heterosexual and patriarchal paradigm by assigning a fixed feminised role and an unequal internal power relationship, which explains the social tolerance of this phenomenon. The case of the rusheng’s homoeroticism was a trend in the group of Confucian disciples which was featured by the conceptualisation of qing as an ideological basis and an egalitarian internal power relationship. This practice compromised less with the heterosexual and patriarchal norms, thereby rendering the phenomenon more subversive to the latter. However, the rusheng were inclined to veil their homoeroticism from the public in several aspects. The case of menzi and xiaochang encompassed multiple regions and social classes and was distinct for its openness to the public. This phenomenon has formed distinctive customs and to some degree acknowledged by formal institutions. In sum, during the Wanli period, the phenomena of male homosexuality troubled existing patriarchal and heteronormative structures, sometimes prompting the dominant order to adopt a more tolerant stance. However, this tolerance did not translate into a successful challenge against the dominant social structures. Instead, patriarchal and heteronormative norms largely retained their influence, particularly regarding marriage practices, even among those who engaged in homosexual activities.

Moreover, the cross-cultural applicability of the three-stage model is critically reviewed in each case. This thesis finds that, with the gradual increase of power of the homosexual community, its tension with dominant social structures was much weaker than the prediction of the three-stage model. Homosexual practices during the Wanli period often coexisted alongside heteronormativity and patriarchy without necessarily prompting conflict or requiring explicit tolerance. This coexistence reflects the distinctive capacity of Confucian ideology, as a symbolic universe, to legitimise patriarchal and heterosexual authority within a relatively flexible and integrative framework, rather than a rigidly exclusionary structure.