International inequality in second-order major sporting events: lessons learned from the event-led development of the Taipei 2017 Universiade and the BIrmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games

Abstract

Major sporting events (MSEs) engender various form of event-led development – such as developing organisational capacity, infrastructures, and diplomatic relationships. Second-order events are often cited as potential developmental opportunities to help, specifically aspiring nations, to host a less harmful and more successful event. These events may have the potential to leverage meaningful development and serve as developmental stepping stones towards future event hosting. However, MSE bids are dwindling, with the ‘worth’ of these events relative to their costs under extreme scrutiny.

The literature regularly demonstrates that MSEs in aspirant nations are perceived as, broadly speaking, more problematic and less successful than those hosted by established nations. In attempting to understand the potential for second-order MSEs to be effective tools of development in both established and aspiring nations, this research investigates the factors which direct the manifestation of event-led development – why event-led development occurs as it does. This research, here, strafes multiple areas, considering cultural, institutional, environmental, and geopolitical factors, amongst others.

As such, the overall aim of this thesis is to investigate the potential of ‘second-order’ MSEs as equitable tools for development across both ‘core’ and ‘non-core’ nations. Four distinct, but interrelated, research questions were crafted: RQ1: What potential do second-order MSEs have to develop capability? RQ2: What factors contribute to the manifestation of event-led developments? RQ3: In what ways are MSEs influenced by the relationship between event-led development and international inequality? RQ4: In what ways do MSE’s influence the relationship between event-led development and international inequality?

A core concept utilised here is international inequality – inequalities between nations promoted by hegemonic forces within the MSE arena. International inequality reasons that aspiring nations may be hindered in engendering valuable event-led development through MSEs when compared to established nations. To this end, the study considers how the direction of event-led development is affected by issues of international inequality and hegemony, constraining, and enabling, developmental value. In addition, it considers how event-led development itself influences inequality and hegemony, challenging, or reinforcing, the dominance of certain nations within the MSE arena.

The thesis draws on the cases of the Taipei 2017 Universiade and the Birmingham 2022 Commonwealth Games. It compares and evaluates these two second-order events. In doing so, the study primarily adopts the theoretical frameworks of the capability approach and world-systems theory. The study employs critical realism as the guiding paradigm of this qualitative multiple case study research design. Official event documents, academic publications, and media reports formed the first phase of analysis, whilst semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders formed the second phase.

In addressing the above questions, this thesis argues that MSEs can be effective tools for valuable development in both established and aspiring nations. However, the Birmingham 2022 Games were judged to be more developmentally valuable to the host. It demonstrates that developmental ‘value’ was subject to two ‘directors’ of development: the Local Context and the MSE Complex. These directors reflected, and reproduced, international inequality inherent within the MSE arena. This diminished the value of event-led development within the aspirant host nation and reinforced the hegemony of established nations within the MSE arena.

Within this thesis, the prioritisation of event-led development which expands capability most valuable to the host nation, rather than to the dominant hegemony – through collaboration – is suggested.

This study demonstrates how a consideration of international inequalities within the MSE arena may have implications for future MSEs. In this way, this thesis posits that, with some effort, MSEs may become effective and equitable tools for event-led development.