Decoding generativity: unraveling the enigma of heritable patterns and psychometric phenomena in diverse contexts

Abstract

Erikson's concept of generativity—the concern for nurturing future generations, contributing positively to society, and leaving a legacy—forms the basis of human civilisation and evolution. As a critical psychological trait, generativity has profound implications for mental health and well-being. This thesis explores the multifaceted nature of generativity, examining its structure, theoretical integrity, heritability, cultural manifestations, and validity through a series of comprehensive studies conducted in both Western and Eastern contexts.

The thesis begins with a comprehensive literature review on the concept of generativity. Then, the first theme investigates the structure and heritability of the Loyola Generativity Scale (LGS) within a Western context. Through structural modelling, three correlated factors were identified: 1) establishing and aiding the next generation, 2) maintaining the world, and 3) symbolic immortality through a positive legacy. To ensure the reliability and validity of these findings, this structure was then replicated in a UK sample. Following this replication, genetic and environmental influences on these factors were examined using twin modelling, revealing significant heritability for all three factors and a general factor, with substantial unique environmental effects.

Building on the established three-factor structure for generativity, Chapter 3 aims to replicate this structure of the Loyola Generativity Scale (LGS) in an Eastern cultural context and investigates the relationship between generativity and mental health outcomes, including stress, depression, anxiety, and life satisfaction among Chinese university students. The Chinese sample demonstrated a two-factor structure along with a general factor (Study 1), diverging from the three-factor model observed in Western contexts. This divergence is attributed to Chinese culture's emphasis on integrated, harmonised, and communal values. This prompted further investigation into the nature of these factors, testing their construct validity and predictive validity. Study 2 confirmed the replicability and test-retest reliability of the two-factor model. Additionally, the distinctiveness of positively and negatively phrased items and the general factor from social desirability within the Chinese cultural context was validated, confirming their discriminant validity. Study 3 examined the relationship between generativity and negative emotional states, alongside life satisfaction. The Generativity Engagement factor (positively phrased items) was positively associated with life satisfaction, indicating that active generative engagement may enhance well-being. The Social Disconnection factor (negatively phrased items) strongly predicted negative emotional states, including anxiety, stress, and depression a year later, suggesting that feelings of social exclusion and being unneeded can severely impact mental health.

The final theme, addressed in Chapter 4, extends the findings of Chapter 3 by examining self-esteem—a critical component of overall psychological well-being that reflects an individual's subjective evaluation of their own worth, in a UK sample (the same data as in Chapter 2, Study 2). By exploring self-esteem in the context of generativity, particularly through nuanced generativity dimensions, we gain deeper insights into how generativity shapes self- perception. Initially, confirmatory analysis was conducted on the structure of generativity, revealing that both the bifactor model from Chapter 3 and the correlated three-factor model from Chapter 2 fit the data well. Each model demonstrated strengths: the bifactor model provided a generalised yet comprehensive overview, cross-cultural applicability, and dimensional clarity, while the three-factor model offered a detailed breakdown of nuanced dimensions, aligning with the conceptual richness of generativity. A cross-cultural comparison revealed specific cultural differences in the expression and perception of generativity. Linear regression was used to examine the relationship between self-esteem and the dimensions of generativity using both models. Significant relationships were found between self-esteem and the "contributing to the next generation" and "maintaining society" factors in the correlated three-factor model, as well as with the Social Disconnection factor and the general factor in the bifactor model. These findings can be interpreted through Sociometer Theory and Self-Determination Theory. Generativity provides individuals with a sense of competence and relatedness, which fulfils intrinsic needs and enhances self-worth, aligning with Self-Determination Theory, while perceived social exclusion negatively impacts self-esteem. Contrary to Terror Management Theory, the anticipated positive effect of legacy-building on self-esteem was not observed.

Overall, this thesis comprehensively examines the phenotypic structure and genetic architecture of generativity, along with its significant role in the nuanced interplay with mental health, well-being, and self-esteem. This research also underscores the importance of considering cultural variations in the expression of generativity.

Throughout this thesis, the first-person plural pronoun "we" is used to reflect the research team, including the author, supervisors, and collaborators.