Norris, Paul

Houghton, Claire

Naumann, Ingela

Vishniac, Miriam

2025-07-23T11:16:33Z

2025-07-23T11:16:33Z

2025-07-23

BACKGROUND: The United States has the highest female incarceration rate in the world. Simultaneously, there have been growing reports by advocacy organizations, news media, and formerly incarcerated menstruators themselves that there is not appropriate access to menstrual products in prison. This research shows, for the first time, what the official rules around the provision of menstrual products are for women’s prisons across the U.S., how menstruation deeply impacts the experience of incarceration, and what factors led to and support the status quo of unsupported menstruation in prison. Using a multidisciplinary approach with concepts from criminology, law, gender studies, and more, this research is one of the first in-depth academic discussions of incarcerated menstruation and contributes the framework of menstrual indignities, which identifies and categories the types of harms caused by a lack of support for menstruation in prison and what drives these harms. METHODS: This research used both document analysis and semi-structured interviews to collect information about the experience of incarcerated menstruation. In each jurisdiction (federal and all 50 states), laws, internal department of correction policies, and facility handbooks were analysed for key factors for access regarding the provision of menstrual products: the specific terms used, when and where products are provided, the quantity and quality of the provided products, and the cost of these products. These collected documents comprise the first compendium of prison menstrual product rules across the U.S. Additionally, 14 interviews were conducted with a mix of formerly incarcerated menstruators as Experts via lived experience and with Professionals who work closely with current and/or formerly incarcerated menstruators. RESULTS: Across the country, there is no law, internal department of corrections policy, or facility/jurisdiction handbook which addresses every one of the most impactful factors for accessing menstrual products in prison. Where these rules do exist, they vary intensely from one jurisdiction to another, with some taking care to provide important details while others give the minimum amount possible, leaving individual guards to make decisions that have a large impact on the wellbeing of incarcerated menstruators. The framework of menstrual indignities identifies different types of actions which harm incarcerated menstruators, what those different kinds of harm are, and what drives each of those harms, informed by the words of those most impacted and knowledgeable about this issue. DISCUSSION: This research shows that jurisdictions in the U.S. fail to ensure appropriate access to menstrual products in prison, fail to propagate existing laws or policies to facility handbooks and inform incarcerated menstruators, or fail to acknowledge menstruation at all in any official capacity despite being responsible for those who menstruate. The framework of menstrual indignities makes it possible to see the full effects of menstruation on incarceration for the first time and the many ways in which the U.S. prison system harms incarcerated menstruators. This framework identifies specific prison rules and punishments which may have an outsized impact on menstruators and how menstruation can be turned into a tool of humiliation in prison. It shows how a lack of support for menstruation and access to menstrual products can lead to serious mental and physical issues which may impact incarcerated menstruators’ wellbeing. It may force them to make more tough choices with fewer resources than non-menstruators, such as having to choose between bleeding on oneself and getting punished but participating in programming or not participating or earning good time, but also not having to spend hours away from access to products. It also posits that transmen and non-binary individuals who menstruate may face significant challenges to accessing menstrual products in men’s facilities, though that phenomenon requires further study to confirm. CONCLUSION: This research allows incarcerated menstruators to describe their experiences around periods in prison for one of the first times in an academic setting. Not only does it highlight the voices which have generally been left out of the conversation, it also uses their experiences to validate a new framework of harms and causes within the U.S. prison system, corroborated by the testimony of Professionals and by key evidence. Additionally, by identifying key factors for access, policymakers, advocates, and corrections staff can now determine whether there are gaps in current rules and how to address them. Given the fact that this research shows a potential impact from a lack of access to menstrual products on factors thought to be linked to post-release success, such as visitation, mental health and self-esteem, and the ability to participate in programming intended for treatment, there is a strong case for future research and increasing access to menstrual products and support for menstruation in spaces of confinement.

https://hdl.handle.net/1842/43716

http://dx.doi.org/10.7488/era/6247

en

The University of Edinburgh

Vishniac, M. (2022) Women’s Prisons in the U.S.: The Prison Flow Project. Available at: https://theprisonflowproject.com/complete‐list‐of‐womens‐prisons/

Vishniac, M. (2022) Women’s Prisons in the U.S.: The Prison Flow Project. Available at: https://theprisonflowproject.com/complete‐list‐of‐womens‐prisons/

women’s health

embodiment

gender

prisons

menstruation

health

law

periods

LGBTQ+

menstrual equity

period poverty

LGBT rights

women's rights

body autonomy

incarceration

U.S.

United States

New correctional afterthought: menstruation and incarceration in the U.S.A.

The new correctional afterthought: menstruation and incarceration in the U.S.A.

Thesis or Dissertation

Doctoral

PhD Doctor of Philosophy